Methodology

Distance and efficiency are normalized. Energy, maintenance reserves, projected cash flows and residual-adjusted economic costs are separate. Loan principal is not added to the purchase price again; refundable deposits are cash outflows and inflows. Results are estimates based on entered values and uniform mileage.

Formulas and interpretation

• Fuel = annual km ÷ km/L × price per litre
• Battery-based grid energy = km × kWh/100km ÷ 100 ÷ (1−loss). Grid-based consumption does not add loss again.
• Maintenance reserves are budgets, not actual yearly spending. Missing service history leaves cash timing unknown.
• Ownership economic cost = price + separate acquisition costs + interest/fees + running costs − residual. Retained assets are not cash inflows.
• Rental and lease costs include prepayment, monthly fees, separate running costs, settlement, unrefunded deposit and buyout. Contracts are not extrapolated beyond their terms.
• Comparison uses shared horizon, distance and currency. Different end states or missing costs prevent ranking.